Scholars of the highest class,
When they hear about the Dao, earnestly carry it into practice;
Scholars of the middle class,
When they have heard about it, seem now to keep it and now to lose it;
Scholars of the lowest class, when they have heard about it, laugh greatly at it.
If it were not (thus) laughed at, it would not be fit to be the Dao.
(Chapter 41 of the Daodejing)
Introduction
Laozi (also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, and Lao Zi) was a philosopher of ancient China and is a central figure in Daoism (also spelled "Taoism")1. He is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), which is often called simply the Laozi after its reputed author.
The earliest reliable reference (circa 100 BC) to Laozi is found in the the Historical Records (Shiji) by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. 145–86 BC). It is said that Laozi lived in the 6th century BC and worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This allowed him broad access to the classical works of the time. There are numerous variations of a story depicting Confucius(551-479 BC), the venerable philosopher who was born a generation after Laozi, consulting Laozi about rituals. Whatever the truth, Daoism and Confucianism, founded by the two eminent figures respectively, have to be seen side-by-side as two distinct responses to the social, political and philosophical conditions of life two and a half millennia ago in China. Whereas Confucianism is greatly concerned with social relations, conduct and human society, Daoism has a much more individualistic and mystical character, greatly influenced by nature.
Traditional accounts state that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of city life and noted the kingdom's decline. One day he decided to take his leave of the court of Zhou he served and simply started towards the west. At the border (Hangu Guan) leading out of the Zhou, he was halted by the keeper of the pass, a man named Yin Xi, who asked him to record his teachings before he left. He then left with Yin Xi a slender collection of eighty-one short poems and reflections, consisting in total of only around five thousand words. This is the legendary origin of the Daodejing.
The Daodejing is concerned with both Dao (道) and De (德)2. The Dao (or Tao), literally “the Way” or “the Path,” is the cardinal concept of Daoism.Laozi believes that the Dao is the single source (One) of all existence and the primordial natural force of the world, which are in turn governed by the Dao or the natural laws. There are various kinds of Dao, for instances, the Dao of Heaven and Earth, the Dao of needling (zhen dao), or even the Dao of killing oxen.A common puzzle of the Daodejing is the mystical description of the Dao by Laozi; it is formless, imageless, soundless and nameless (ch. 14). In fact, Laozi attained his Dao by detailed observation of the physical world and profound experience of the human life. According to a well-known saying of Confucius, “The kind delight in the mountains and wise delight in water” (仁者乐山，智者乐水) As one of the wisest persons in the world, Laozi deeply loved water and made the following penetrating observations concerning the character of water: (1) Water is the softest substance on Earth, but it is also the most powerful. It is well known that dripping water can wear through the hardest rock. Needless to say, severe flooding can damage everything in its path. (2) Water is the origin of all living things, including both plants and animals. It gives but never tries to get. (3) Water always flows downward, while people prefer to go upward. Laozi thereby concludes “Water is so near to the Dao” (chs. 8, 43).
De, literally “virtue”, refers primarily to ethics or morality, or the Dao of conduct. It actually signifies the full embodiment of the Dao. According to the Daodejing, humans have no special place within the Dao, being just one of its many ("ten thousand") manifestations. Humanity, Earth, and Heaven are all modeled upon the Dao or the natural laws (ch. 25).A person with “superior virtue” (shang de上德) definitely acts in a way in which the Dao operates. And people can also exalt their morals by exploring and mastering the natural laws. As the character of water conforms to that of the Dao, Laozi suggests that the morality and conduct of the perfected human being should resemble the excellence of water, that is, one should be steadfast and persevering, bestowing rather than extortive, humble and honest.
Main doctrines of Daoism
1. Ziran (自然)
Ziranliterally means “self (zi) become (ran).” The term ziran is often understood as nature, naturalness, spontaneity, and currently as self-becoming3. It refers to the natural state and process of the Dao rather than the natural world, which is referred to as Great Zi Ran (大自然) in modern Chinese.
It is Laozi who first coined this concept and used it to describe the workings of Dao. According to the Daodejing, ziran encompasses two aspects:ziran of the physical world, considered to be the embodiment of the Dao or natural laws, for instances, the cycle of day and night, and downward flow of water;ziran of human actions conforming to that of the physical world, for instances, working from dawn to dusk (or the sunrise makes, the sunset but the rest), and dredging or diverting water to flow naturally downward. In the second aspect, ziran is closely tied to the practice of wuwei, or non-action (see next item). When someone acts on a way that is in accordance with the natural laws of the physical world, he acts in wuwei. While any effort contrary to that of the physical world is youwei, or taking inappropriate action, for instances, working from dusk to dawn and diking a river to obstruct water flow.
Laozi prefers to use “pu” (朴, unhewn log) , “su” (素, undyed silk) or chizi (赤子, newborn baby) as metaphors for ziran. They are simple, pure and unaltered. A child with open-seat (or split) pants makes no distinctions between good and evil, beautiful and ugly, high and low. He has no desires and is free from learned labels and definitions.
2. Wuwei (无为)
Wuweiliterally means "non (wu) action (wei)." According to the Daodejing, wuwei is not meant as "non-action" but rather as "taking no action that is contrary to Nature," in other words, letting Nature take its own course. It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" or "effortless doing."
The practice and efficacy of wuwei are fundamental in Daoist thought. Daoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways (i.e. ziran). When someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. The Daodejing intends to lead people to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with the Dao. Laozi teaches that all straining, all striving are not only vain but counterproductive. One should endeavor to discern and follow the natural forces -- to follow and shape the flow of events and not to pit oneself against the natural order of things. In this sense the Daoist doctrine of wu wei can be understood as a way of mastering circumstances by understanding their nature or principal, and then shaping ones actions in accordance with these laws. When someone has arrived at this point of non-action, there is nothing that he does not do (ch. 48).
3. Xuxin (虚心) Empty the heart
The heart, called xin (心) in Chinese, is usually used as a substitute for spirit (shen神) in Chinese culture. It is a long tradition that people all over the world have considered the heart as the source of mental activities. One main reason is that it’s the heart rather than any other organ that remarkably manifests the emotional changes. When someone is excited, his heart will palpitate. By contraries, when one is depressed, he will experience discomfort or even pain in his heart area.
According to TCM, the heart is like a house, and the spirit is stored inside. Tranquility is the natural state of spirit; it should be as quiet as the unruffled waters in a lake. Restlessness or even craziness will occur when excessive desires such as fame, wealth and power occupy the heart and disturb spirit. Laozi therefore asserts that one should “scant desires” to “empty the heart” and attain the profound tranquility (ch. 3 and 19). He even teaches us a practical remedy to approach to the objective. The method seems simple and easy, that is “content with one’s lot” (zhizu 知足). Laozi describes his notion in opposite ways, “No disaster is worse than being discontented” (ch. 46), and “He who is satisfied with his lot is rich” (ch. 33).
More important, only those who are with “empty heart” are able to contemplate and approach to the Dao. Laozi himself is a typical example. As Henry Wei states, "He [Laozi] led a long, quiet and studious life and then vanished from the human scene, leaving behind a compact parcel of sublime wisdom in glorious poetry... He was not exactly a hermit or recluse, but simply loved the contemplative life. He preferred to stay in obscurity in the silence of the library, devoting himself to inner culture and the pursuit of truth, living with serene spontaneity and natural ease."4
4. Law of paradox
Laozi maintains that every thing or phenomenon has its opposite, and at the point of ultimate development, will transform into its reverse. The average person usually recognizes only the superficial or so-called good or yang aspects, for instance, being, happiness, hardness, and highness. But Laozi emphasizes the deep or so-called bad or yin aspects, i.e. non-being, suffering, softness, and lowliness. As non-being gives birth to being, happiness may change into suffering, softness can overcome hardness (as dripping water wears through rock), and lowliness is the basis of highness.
Acupuncture is a typical paradox of harm and benefit. Needling is injurious, but its effect is beneficial. As Laozi says, "When one does something harmful, there may be benefit; on the contrary, when one does something beneficial, there may be harm. Other people instruct me, so I will teach others" (ch. 42). With this doctrine in mind, nobody will refuse the minor injury of needling in order to achieve the major benefit of curing disease.
Laozi and the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic of Medicine (Huang Di Neijing)
The Daodejing acquired its “classic” status in the Western Han dynasty (206 BC-24 AD).According to the Historical Records (Shiji, 49.5b), the Empress Dowager Dou — wife of Emperor Wen and mother of Emperor Jing (r. 156-141 BC) — was a dedicated student of the Daodejing. Later sources add that it was Emperor Jing who chose the doctrines of Daoism instead of those of the Legalists as their ruling ideology. Politically, Taoism advises rulers to engage in wu wei, or non-action. This philosophy is completely opposite to that of the Legalists5.
The adoption of Daoism as the State ideology of the Western Han Dynasty not only alleviated class contradictions but also promoted the development of the natural sciences. During this remote and shadowy era, two hundred years before the birth of Christ, a group of philosopher-physicians who were dedicated followers of Daoism, as well as industrious practitioners of the healing arts, devoted themselves to the study and systematization of medicine.
The Neijing, (circa 104-32 BC),was the outcome of this great effort. The close connection between medicine and Daoism is apparent in this book. There are many similarities in both style and spirit between the Neijing and other Daoist writings. The Neijing, like the Daodejing, has eighty-one chapters[6]. The primary doctrines of Taoism, such as the Dao and Yin and Yang, are found throughout the Neijing. The principle of acupuncture is called zhen dao, or the Dao of Needling. And authorship of the Neijing, like many early Daoist books, is attributed to Huang Di, the legendary Yellow Emperor and ancestor of the Chinese people reputed to have lived over twenty-five hundred years ago7. Just like the medical treatises of the Hippocratic canon, the Neijing contains a philosophical element. This medical masterwork is often used as a primary reference for the study of ancient Chinese philosophy, due to its development of the doctrines of Daoism.
It may never be known who the authors of the Neijing actually were. Despite the loss to history, it was the indifference of these people to fame and fortune, a type of conduct highly appreciated by the Daoists, that made it possible for them to concentrate their minds and create the healing way which has survived until today. These unknown laborers may remain nameless, but their accomplishments will live forever.
The copyright of the article “Laozi’s Daoism and Its Relation to TCM” is owned by Bai Xinghua. Permission to republish this article in print or online must be granted by the author in writing.
Notes and references
1. The current Daodejing is divided into two parts (pian) and 81 chapters or sections (zhang). Part one, comprising chapters 1-37, has come to be known as the Daojing (Classic of Dao), while chapters 38-81 make up the Dejing (Classic of De). This is understood to be a thematic division — chapter 1 begins with the word Dao, while chapter 38 begins with the phrase “superior virtue” — although the concepts of Dao and virtue (de) feature in both parts.
2. The English term "Daoism" (or Taoism) actually has two different meanings in Chinese. One, daojia (道家) in Chinese, is philosophical. The other, daojiao (道教)in Chinese, is religious. Many Westerners, and even some Chinese, often confuse the two or use them interchangeably. Actually, there are essential differences between the two terms. Daojia is China's most ancient school of philosophy, reaching back to the time of the legendary Yellow Emperor, two thousand years before Christ. Daojiao is a native Chinese religion that appeared hundreds of years later during the late Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD). Daoists (adherents of Daojiao) follow the teachings of Lao Zi, the founder of Daoism (Daojia). Here I use the term Daoism to refer to the philosophical Daojia rather than the religious Daojiao.
3. There are several problems of these existing English translations. For examples, first, the translation of ziran as "nature" may misread it as a noun which refers to an entity rather than to a process of growing and becoming. Second, the translation of "spontaneity" may miss the "active" sense of the term ziran. Third, "self-so-ing" or "self-becoming" may mislead our understanding of the term to fall into an egoistic trick, i.e., to make the naturalistic process "personalized." For detailed discussion on the etymological meaning ofziran and its philosophical implications, see Prof. Qingjie James Wang’s "It-self-so-ing" and "Other-ing" in Lao Zi's Concept of Zi Ran. (http://www.confuchina.com)
4. Henry Wei: The Guiding Light of Lao Tzu: A New Translation of the "Tao Te Ching"
5. Legalism was an important school of Chinese philosophy that originated during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) and was perfected by Han Fei (c. 280-233 BC) during the late of Warring States Period (475-221 BC). Han Fei wrote fifty-five works, which were highly appreciated by Qinshi Huangdi, the First Qin Emperor. Qinshi Huangdi adopted many of Han Fei's ideas as State policy. Politically, the Legalists advocated a system of absolute monarchy. Han Fei advocated the use of violence and wars to seize and consolidate political power, and believed that the Emperor himself should determine all government decrees, criminal laws, and rewards and punishments. Ideologically, the Legalists called for the elimination of those who held different views, in order to establish unity of thinking. Han Fei's ideas played a positive role in the unification of China by Qinshi Huangdi. However, because of its cruel and ferocious persecution of intellectuals as well as the broad masses of the people, the Great Qin Empire lasted only fourteen years, and finally was overthrown by a peasant uprising. For details, see the Department of Chinese Philosophical History, Beijing University, The History of Chinese Philosophy (Zhongguo Zhexue Shi 中国哲学史) Vol. 1 (Beijing: China Book Company, 1980), 168-173.
6. Nine times nine is eighty-one. Nine is the largest number in Taoist numerology, and eighty-one is the supreme number of the Dao. The Su Wen and Ling Shu each consist of eighty-one chapters.
7. During the Warring States Period (475-221 BC), many Taoist scholars attributed their works, such as the Laozi or Daodejing, to Huang Di, the semi-mythical Yellow Emperor who was considered to be the founder of Taoism. The Huainan Zi, a collection of Taoist writings from the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD), states: "Currently, many people have the common view of stressing the past but not the present. So those who develop the doctrines of Tao prefer to attribute authorship of their writings to Shen Nong [the legendary Chinese emperor and inventor of agriculture] or Huang Di." Huainan Zi 淮南子(Beijing: Yanshan Press, 1995), 19: 512. The authors of the Neijing followed this convention and attributed their own treatises to Huang Di, just as the followers of Hippocrates attributed their writings to Hippocrates.
